Take a trip back in time to the wonderful world of history!

Democracy in ancient Athens cannot be considered a democracy in the modern mind, because e.g. women, slaves or foreigners (perioikis) did not have the right to vote. Only full-fledged armed men had the right to vote. However, this does not mean that the Athenian democracy is somehow a worse version of the current one. Many features of ancient democracy have been adopted in Western countries in the new era. Democracy at that time was also progressive compared to other forms of government of the time (tyranny, aristocracy, etc.).

Photo: A silver tetradrachm worth four drachmas from the period 450-406 BC. In ancient Greece, the owl and the olive branch were symbols of Pallas Athene, the patron goddess of Athens. To the right of the owl are the first three Greek letters of the name of Athena: AΘΗ. On the reverse side is the head of Athena, the patron goddess of Athens. She wears a necklace and earrings, and a richly decorated helmet that suggests warfare. Pallas Athēnē, in Greek mythology, was also the goddess of war, knowledge and wisdom, which the owl figure also refers to. The coin is one of the oldest in the world and was a commonly used monetary unit in ancient Athens from 600 BC until the beginning of Roman rule.

The Socratic method is a philosophical conversational technique used by the Greek philosopher Socrates (470-469 – 399 BCE) in his teaching. The method is based on questions and objections aimed at guiding the interlocutor to think deeply and consistently. Its aim is to help individuals realize things and become aware of their own prejudices and motivations behind these prejudices.

In the Socratic method, the teacher often asks open-ended questions that challenge the student to reflect, evaluate and analyze their own views and beliefs. This helps the individual identify and question their own presuppositions, preconceptions and contradictions between them.

The method aims to promote critical thinking, problem-solving skills and self-reflection. Socratic discourse can be a very effective way to promote learning and understanding, especially in the teaching of philosophy and ethics.

The Socratic method is often accompanied by misunderstandings and confusions. Here are some common misconceptions:

1. Objections: Many may think that the Socratic method simply means raising objections or refuting arguments. However, this is not the essence of the method. While objections can be part of the debate, the Socratic method focuses more on open-ended questions and reflection.
2. Aggressive challenge: Some may perceive the Socratic method as aggressive challenging or questioning. However, its purpose is not to humiliate the interlocutor, but to guide him to deeper thinking and insights.
3. Only one correct answer: Others may believe that the goal of Socratic discourse is to find one correct answer or truth. However, the Socratic method emphasizes process and critical thinking, rather than final truth.
4. Superficial questioning: In some cases, Socratic inquiry may appear superficial or repetitive if used incorrectly or without a deep understanding of the method.

It is important to note that the Socratic method is, above all, a teaching tool that seeks to promote critical thinking, understanding and self-reflection. Its goal is not to overcome arguments or point out the errors of others’ views, but to guide the interlocutor to a deep examination of his own thoughts and beliefs.

Correct answer: Europe (Greek: Εὐρώπη, Eurōpē)[1][2] or Europa (lat.) was a Phoenician princess in Greek mythology and mother of King Minos of Crete. The continent of Europe is said to be named after Europe.

Correct answer: Impression, Sunrise is an 1872 painting by Claude Monet (in French, Impression, soleil levant.) The painting, born in Le Havre, gave the name to Impressionism. The painting became famous when exhibited at an exhibition of independents.

Photo: An Attic amphora decorated with red-figure technique. Painter of Niobe, c. 460–450 BC. Walters Art Museum. In the amphora, three apparently wealthy Athenian women are preparing for a concert. A seated woman has a barbiton (string instrument) in her hand, a lyre above. A woman on her right holds two flutes, and a third woman lifts the lid of a box. Greek red – figure pottery was produced at the end of the Archaic period and in the Classical period around 530–320 BC.

Literature:

Kallio, Rakel et al. (ed.), Taiteen pikkujättiläinen. Porvoo: WSOY, 1991, p.342.

Murtomäki, Veijo, Soittimet ja niiden käyttö, 5 March 2019.

Encyclopaedia Britannica

Mary I (also Maria Tudor or “Bloody Mary,” 18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558) was Queen of England and Ireland from 1553 to 1558. She was the daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. Mary I was the fourth and penultimate ruler of the Tudor family. She is remembered for her attempt to restore England from Protestantism back to Catholicism, but most of Mary’s changes were reversed after her half-sister Elizabeth I came to power. Mary also became Queen of Spain as the consort of King Philip ll of Spain.

in Greek mythology, Perseus was the son of Danae and Zeus who achieved fame for his bravery and intelligence. Perseus was too poor to supply King Polydectes with horses as a wedding present, but instead promised to bring him the head of the monster Medusa. Medusa had once been a beautiful maiden whose hair was her greatest treasure, but when she dared to compete for beauty with Athena and desecrated her temple, the goddess stripped Medusa of her charms and turned her beautiful curls into hissing snakes. Medusa also received from Athena eyes that glowed with an eerie light. From now on, everyone who looked Medusa in the eyes turned to stone. Perseus received a magic shield from Athena, which Perseus used as a mirror to avoid Medusa’s gaze. Finding Medusa in her cave, Perseus approached the monster by following its image on his magic shield, slashed its head, and escaped with his invisibility headgear.

Literature – Reference Sources:

Daly, Cathleen N., Greek and Roman Mythology, A to Z. New York: Chelsea House, 2009, p.114.

Cotterell, Arthur, Maailman myytit ja tarut. Porvoo: WSOY, 1989, p.147.

Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th President of the United States from 1901 to 1909. Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42 after the assassination of William McKinley. He was also known as T.R. and Teddy. Known for his anti-monopoly policies and ecological conservationism, Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his part in ending the Russo-Japanese War. His refusal to shoot a bear cub on a 1902 hunting trip inspired a toy maker to name a stuffed bear after him, and the teddy bear fad soon swept the nation.

Sources:

Encyclopedia Britannica

Biography

Fernão de Magalhães (engl. Magellan, c. 1480 – 27 April 1521) was a Portuguese navigator and explorer. From 1519 to 1521, he led a Spanish expedition to the Spice Islands with the intention of claiming the islands for Spain and establishing a new western trade route. He discovered the sea route to the Pacific Ocean through the southern tip of South America and was the first to sail to Asia via the Pacific. Magalhães died in a skirmish in the Philippines in 1521, but 18 of his men and one ship returned to Spain in 1522 across the Indian Ocean, making the expedition the first humans to circumnavigate the globe.

Four Seasons (Ital. Le quattro stagioni) is a suite of four violin concertos composed by Antonio Vivaldi. It is a group of four violin concerti, each of which gives musical expression to a season of the year. The suite was composed around 1720 and published in 1725. Four Seasons is Vivaldi’s best-known work.

Chess was a hobby of a small elite during the Renaissance. It reached the courts and noble circles of Europe via several routes:

1. From the Middle East to Europe: Chess is originally known as an Indian game, but it spread widely in the Middle East, especially in the Persian, Arabic, and Ottoman empires. From there it travelled through trade routes and cultural exchanges to Europe.
2. Crusades: European crusaders and traders interacted with the Middle East and the Islamic world, which contributed to chess becoming known and spreading to Europe.
3. Medieval Spain: The Moorish conquest of Spain brought chess to Andalusia, where it became a popular pastime among Muslims, Jews, and Christians. Later, Spanish governments promoted the teaching and practice of chess.
4. Italian influence: In 14th-century Italy, chess gained a strong foothold, especially in Florence and Venice, where it was a popular pastime among courts and nobles. From Italy, chess spread to other European countries.

Chess emerged as a popular pastime for several reasons:

1. Challenge: Chess offers a complex and strategic playing experience that required deep thinking and consideration from players.
2. Social prestige: Chess was associated with intelligence and sophistication, making it a popular pastime among the upper social class.
3. Cultural significance: Chess represented cultural and social capital, and playing it was a sign of sophistication and civilization.
4. Social interaction: The game of chess provided an opportunity for social interaction and diplomacy, and was a popular way to spend time with friends.
5. Competitive spirit: Many Renaissance courts and sophisticated circles organized chess competitions in which winning was valued and respected.

Literature – Reference Sources:

Eales, Chess: The History of a Game. Glasgow: Hardinge Simpole, 2002

Wonning, Paul R., A Short History of the Game of Chess. Smashwords Edition, 2014.

I was a warlord and a king. With my army, I conquered, among other things, Egypt and the Persian Empire in the 300s BCE. My empire stretched all the way to India. In the Oliver Stone-directed film, I was played by Colin Farrel. Who am I?

Cantino’s world map from 1502 is named after the Italian Alberto Cantino, who was the duke of Ferrara’s emissary and spy. Cantino smuggled the map from Portugal to Italy on the Duke’s behalf.

For the first time, the map showed the correct shape and extent of the American continent in relation to Europe and Africa. This allowed contemporaries to better understand the geographical structure of the world and helped promote the expansion of European exploration and discovery into the Americas.

The Cantino map is significant because it shows a number of new areas that were unknown to Europe prior to those discovered by Portuguese explorers at the end of the 15th century. The map shows, among other things:

1. Brazil: The coast of Brazil is marked on the map as a large country as the “Land of the True Cross” (Vera Cruz).
2. African coast: The map provides a more detailed description of the west coast of Africa, including the coasts of Madeira, Cape Verde and Sierra Leone.
3. Indian Ocean: The map also depicts the western part of the Indian Ocean, which was an important trade route between Europe and Asia.

On the Cantino map, however, e.g. India’s location and proportions are inaccurate, and Australia is also missing. James Cook discovered the east coast of Australia in 1770. India appeared on maps in the 16th century, Australia in the 17th century, but at that time information about the location and size of the territories was often inaccurate and incomplete.

Literature – Reference Sources:

Thrower, Norman J. W. “Maps & Civilization: Cartography in Culture and Society.” Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.

Harley, J. B., and David Woodward (eds.). “The History of Cartography, Volume 2: Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies.” Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.

Bagrow, Leo. “History of Cartography.” London: Watts & Co, 1952.

Parry, J. H. “The Discovery of the Sea.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981.

Paine, Lincoln. “Ships of Discovery and Exploration.” Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2000.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen) was issued in connection with the French Revolution on August 26, 1789. It was drafted and proclaimed by the French Constituent National Assembly and defined the objectives of the revolution, namely the realisation of freedom, fraternity and equality. The key principles of the declaration were freedom of expression, equality of people before the law (but not between the sexes), freedom of religion and private property.

Eugène Delacroix’s painting Liberty Leading the People (La Liberté Guidant le peuple, 1830) is inspired by the French “July Revolution” of 1830, or rather the popular uprising that began in Paris on July 27, 1830, which led to the ousting of the King Charles X, and accession of Louis-Philippe as King of France. Louis-Philippe ruled until 1848.

The figure of Marianne in the foreground, as well as the Phrygian cap, symbolize freedom, equality and people’s power. The top-hatted figure to her left is the bourgeoisie, and behind him representatives of the working class. The popular uprising was the reaction of many different social classes, mainly the working class and the bourgeoisie, against the decrees published by King Charles X, which restricted freedom of speech and increased the king’s power. The colours of the tricolor flag – blue, white and red – are symbols of the revolution and represent its values – freedom, equality and fraternity.

Many Chinese inventions have travelled to Europe from Asia along with trade. The Arabs in particular played an important role in this since the days of Roman rule.

Paper:

The oldest paper-like writing surfaces were animal skins and papyrus, which the Egyptians made from the inner parts of a papyrus reed around 3000 BC. Paper from pulp and silk tree bark was already produced in China in 105 A.D. Paper was produced there on a large scale from the 8th century, in Europe in the 12th century after the Arabs copied the Chinese paper-making method and founded the first European paper mill in Spain.

Magnetic compass:

Chinese sailors used the magnetic compass in the 12th century, and apparently with the Arabs, the invention travelled to Europe in the 13th century. The Chinese compass, known as a “seismoscope,” consisted of a magnetic needle suspended so that it could turn freely. Some kind of rudimentary sun compass was already in use by the Vikings in the 9th century.

Powder:

Powder was invented in China in the 9th century, in Europe it was used in firearms in the 13th century. Powder was initially used in China for medicinal purposes, but was later introduced into fireworks, explosives, and weapons such as arrows, where it served as projectile.

Printing Press:

In China, books were printed from wooden plates with engraved characters from the 11th century. The woodblock was printed on paper, and this method is typically called woodblock printing. Johannes Gutenberg is considered to be the inventor of letterpress printing in the middle of the 16th century, but he mainly utilized already existing technical know-how for large-scale printing of books. Even before Gutenberg, playing cards and images of saints printed by wooden stamps and wooden plates were produced in Europe.

Literature – Reference Sources:

Needham, Joseph. “Science and Civilization in China.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954-2008.

Temple, Robert. “The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention.” Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions, 1986.

Gernet, Jacques. “A History of Chinese Civilization.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Mote, Frederick W. “Imperial China: 900–1800.” Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.

Kuhn, Dieter. “The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of China.” Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.

John Locke (1632-1704) believed that the best form of government was a constitutional monarchy, in which the constitution obliges the king to ensure that his citizens are treated just. This will prevent abuse of power. In essence, Locke believed that the king had the power to rule only if the ruled agreed to it.

Correct answer: Hernán Cortés (1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who, under King Charles I of Spain, initiated the Spanish conquest of Mexico from 1519 to 1521 and overthrew the Aztec Empire in his campaign.

Galileo was a defender of the heliocentric theory. According to it, the Earth moves around its axis and revolves around the Sun. However, this led him to a war of words with the Catholic Church, which, citing the Bible and the doctrines of Aristotle, taught that the earth is the centre of the universe. Galileo’s observations thus called into question the authority of the Church and its interpretation of the universe. Galileo’s law of acceleration goes like this: Object retain their speed if they are not affected by any force. Giambattista Benedetti had already proved in 1553 that the rate at which an object falls does not depend on its mass. According to the Aristotelian theory defended by the Church, the more an object weighs, the faster it falls. The story of the tower of Pisa hasn’t been able to be confirmed by independent sources.

The portrait that doesn’t belong to the same group, is in the “old master’s style” 3D – printed “Mock Rembrandt” (photo 4). The others are portraits of real people painted by Rembrandt:

Photo 1: Rembrandt van Rijn, Portrait of Marten Looten, 1632.

Photo 2: Rembrandt van Rijn, Portrait of a Man, 1632.

Photo 3: Rembrandt van Rijn, Portrait of a Man in a Broad-brimmed hat, 1635.

“Mock Rembrandt” is part of “The Next Rembrandt” – project sponsored by Dutch bank ING and Microsoft and launched in 2016 by Delft University of Technology and several museums. 3D – the image mimics as closely as possible Rembrandt’s subjects, style and painting technique. Various deep learning algorithms and facial recognition techniques have been used in their production. However, according to the authors, this was not a copy or forgery, nor was there any attempt to make the public believe that the image was genuine, but to create a “new” Rembrandt, that is, a work that Rembrandt COULD HAVE made. The project apparently also sought to explore the potential of new technologies in the “recreation” of classical art.

In nature, of course, a 3D print can be easily distinguished from a real painting based on the material used, but detecting the differences on a computer screen is more challenging. However, digitally created portraits that mimic the “old master” style may lack the subtle brushstroke of the original work, the surface material patinated by time, shades of light and shadow, and unique colour shades used by the artist.

Rembrandt is especially known for his ability to bring out the human soul and personality in his portraits, which 3D printing cannot do. The contrast of light and shadow, as well as nuanced details, create depth and characterize the subjects, making each of them “unique.” 3D printing is at best just a synthesis of these techniques.

Although digital imitations or replicas can be created with great precision and skill, they usually lack the human touch of the original artist and the patina of time. Advances in technology make separating them from real art more challenging, but skilled experts can often spot these differences when they take a closer look at works.

Literature – Reference Sources:

Schwartz, Gary. “Rembrandt: His Life and Works in 500 Images.” London: Lorenz Books, 2012.

White, Christopher. “Rembrandt and His World.” London: Thames & Hudson, 2001.

Slive, Seymour. “Rembrandt and His Critics.” The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1953.

van de Wetering, Ernst. “Rembrandt: The Painter at Work.” Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997.

Bredius, Abraham. “The Paintings of Rembrandt.” London: Phaidon Press, 1936.

Articles:

Nicole Pickett-Groen, “The Next Rembrandt: Resurrecting the Old Master.” Medium.

Alwinton, Tom, The fundamentally flawed quality of painting: a critique of the political economy of the modern art market.

Correct answer: Jaguar

The jaguar symbolizes physical and mental strength in many Mesoamerican and Andean cultures, including the Chavin and Olmec cultures. Here are some reasons why the jaguar was worshipped in these cultures:

1. Power: The jaguar was a symbol of strength in these cultures. It was believed to represent the forces of nature and to be connected to the divine or supernatural.
2. Warrior spirit: The powerful and courageous nature of the Jaguar also made it a symbol of the warrior spirit. Many soldiers and warlords could attach themselves to the jaguar, hoping it would give them strength and courage in battle.
3. Spiritual significance: The jaguar may also have represented mental power and higher powers. It was believed that the jaguar was an intermediary between man and the spirit world, and its worship may have been associated with rituals and ceremonies seeking to establish contact with the divine.
4. Symbol of rulers: The jaguar may also have been a symbol of rulers, and many rulers had titles or names associated with the jaguar. This symbolizes the power and authority of the ruler.
5. Contact with nature: These cultures were strongly connected to nature, and jaguar worship reflected their respect for the elements. The jaguar was part of a larger ecosystem, and its symbolization represented respect for the diversity of life.

Beer became the most popular drink in the Middle Ages for several reasons:

1. a) Water impurities: The water was often impure and contaminated, so beer offered a safer alternative because its manufacturing process involved boiling, which destroyed the bacteria.
2. b) Nutritiousness: Beer also provided nourishment as it contained carbohydrates and proteins.
3. c) Shelf life: Beer was better preserved than water, which was important especially on long journeys and excursions.
4. d) Communality: Beer was part of the social and cultural life of the community, and its consumption was part of various celebrations and rituals.

(e) Economic reasons: The production of beer was economically viable because it provided additional income for farmers and was also an important part of trade and the economy.

The Barber of Seville is a comic opera composed by Gioacchino Rossini, which premiered in Rome at the Teatro Argentina on February 20, 1816. The others are operas composed by Mozart.

Correct answer: The Black Death

The “Black Death”, also known as the plague, was a notorious and devastating disease that spread in Europe in the mid-1300s. The disease caused massive deaths and left a terrible picture in its wake.

Distribution: The Black Death spread rapidly and widely in Europe. It originally arrived from Asia through the Black Sea region and then spread through trade and travel to various countries. The disease affected the whole of Europe and is estimated to have killed between 25% and 30% of the continent’s population.

Prevention methods: Medical knowledge in the 1300s was limited, and there were no effective treatments to combat the Black Death. People resorted to various desperate means, such as praying to local gods and saints or isolating themselves. Cities could impose quarantines or close their gates, but these measures often did not prevent the spread of the disease.

Mortality: The Black Death was a very deadly disease. Its symptoms included fever, black swellings that gave the disease its name, and eventually frequent death. It is estimated that up to 50 to 60 per cent of those affected could die. The disease was particularly devastating in densely populated areas, such as cities, where people lived close together and it was easier for the disease to spread.

Cause of transmission: The Black Death was caused by a plague caused by a bacterium called Yersinia pestis. The bacterium was spread through fleas that were infected by biting infected rodents, especially rats. A person could become infected when he was bitten by an infected flea. In addition, the disease could also spread by droplet or contact infection from sick people to healthy people.

Eradication of plague: The Black Death left behind terrible consequences, but over time its incidence began to decline. This may be due to the fact that the rapid spread of the disease caused the development of immunity among the population. In addition, better hygiene, advances in health care and flea control measures helped reduce the spread of plague. However, the Black Death has not completely disappeared and is still present in some parts of the world.

These inventions had a significant impact on the economy and social development of the Middle and Modern Ages:

1. Heavy plough: The introduction of the heavy plough made agriculture significantly more efficient. It made it possible to cultivate heavier soils, such as clay soils, which expanded the amount of arable land. More efficient tillage increased crop yields and improved agricultural productivity, which in turn led to population growth and urbanization.
2. Hourglass: The introduction of the hourglass helped accurate time determination and time management. This was significant, for example, in navigation, which facilitated the planning and implementation of long sea voyages. With the help of the hourglass, it was also possible to observe the passage of time and adherence to schedules, for example in going to church and shopping.
3. Mechanical clock: The development of the mechanical clock made it possible to accurately measure time and divide it into smaller parts. This was important in the early days of the industrial age, when accurate time management was necessary in the operation of factories and production scheduling. The spread of mechanical clocks also helped people to organize their days more efficiently and balance work and rest times.
4. Printing press: The development of printing skills revolutionized the dissemination and availability of information. In the past, copying books was slow and laborious manual work, but with the advent of letterpress printing, the production of books became significantly faster and more affordable. This increased the availability of books and the number of high schools, significantly contributing to the spread of knowledge and the spread of literacy in Europe. The art of printing also supported the free spread of culture and knowledge, which in turn had a significant impact on cultural and scientific development.

All these inventions promoted economic and social development in medieval and modern Europe and had a significant impact on people’s lives and everyday life.

Correct answer: François Boucher (The Robbery of Europe, 1747. Oil on canvas, 160.5 x 193.5 cm. Louvre Museum, Paris). In his Metamorphoses, Ovid tells how Jupiter (Zeus in Greek) robs a princess disguised as a bull and, after a long sea voyage, stops only on the island of Crete, which, according to legend, gave rise to a continent called Europe. The atmosphere of the Rococo painting is lightly erotic. The drama and violence of the original story takes a back seat.

World War II began with Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939, when Britain and France, which had previously granted Poland security guarantees, declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939.

Sources:

Case Wetern Case University. Early Music Instrument Database.

Viola da Gamba: History, Characteristics and Influence. Luthiers.

Source criticism means evaluating and analyzing sources to ensure their reliability, authenticity, and relevance. It is a key part of the research process, which seeks to ensure that the sources used are accurate and provide correct information. The source can be basically anything: an object find, a pictorial, literary or digital work.

Source criticism is not just skepticism or doubt about all sources. Nor does it mean evaluating sources solely on the basis of their age stage or country of origin. The reliability of the source does not depend on its age, but on other factors. The aim of source criticism is to try to understand the content, context and possible interests of sources that indicate the author’s intentions and may affect the content and reliability of the source.

Sfumato (Italian: fumo, smoke, fog) is a  painting method in which colour tones are softened and fused together, blurring the lines between light and shadow. It aims to create a hazy, three-dimensional image by blurring outlines along with colours, usually with thin layers of paint, of which several are painted. To paint Mona Lisa’s eyes and mouth, Leonardo used dozens of colour layers, which partly explains the ambiguity of her smile.

In Sophocles’ tragedy Oedipus rex (also known by its Greek title, Oedipus Tyrannus or Oedipus the King) Oedipus encountered a sphinx in Thebes, where a monster named the sphinx tormented the Theban inhabitants by presenting them with riddles. If they couldn’t solve the riddles, the sphinx ate them.

When Oedipus arrived in Thebes, he encountered the Sphinx. The Sphinx presented him with a famous riddle: “What goes on four feet in the morning, two feet in midday, and three feet in the evening?” Oedipus solved the riddle by answering that it is a human being: as a baby, a person walks on four (arms and legs), as an adult on two legs, and in old age on three (using two legs and one leaning on a stick).

Upon hearing the solution, the Sphinx threw herself into a ravine and died.  Oedipus was able to pass through the gates of Thebes and save the city from the temptation of the monster. This event made Oedipus the hero of Thebes and eventually its king. After hearing the solution, the sphinx threw itself into the ravine and died. Oedipus was able to pass through the gates of Thebes and save the city from the temptation of the monster. This event made Oedipus the hero of Thebes and eventually its king.

Oedipus was the son of King Laios and Queen Jocaste, which he did not know. According to the prophecy, Oedipus would kill his father and marry his mother, which is why he was abandoned as a child. Growing up, he learns of the prophecy and tries to prevent it from coming true, but eventually his attempts fail and he accidentally fulfills the prophecy.

The power of fate and fighting against it is a major theme in ancient and later modern European literature. Freud’s “Oedipus complex” also got its name from the story.

Literature – Reference Sources:

Bernard Knox: “Oedipus at Thebes: Sophocles’ Tragic Hero and His Time”. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957.

E.R. Dodds: “On Misunderstanding the Oedipus Rex”. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966.

Sophocles: “Oedipus Rex”. Translated by Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin Classics, 1984.

Edith Hall: “The Theban Plays: Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone”. Translated by Peter Meineck. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014.

“Tom Jones” is a novel published by Henry Fielding in 1749. The book belongs to the classics of English literature. It tells about the adventures and love affairs of young orphan Tom Jones in 18th century England. The book combines a humorous and satirical tone with a story that deals with class differences, morality and human relationships in 18^th century British society.

Correct answer: Europe (Greek: Εὐρώπη, Eurōpē) or Europa (lat.) was a Phoenician princess in Greek mythology and mother of King Minos of Crete. The European continent is said to be named after her.

In their metamorphoses Ovid tells how Jupiter (Greek Zeus) robs a princess disguised as a bull and, after a long sea voyage, stops only on the island of Crete, which, according to legend, gave birth to a continent called Europe.

In ancient Rome, a long nose symbolized strength of character, strength and determination (qualities that were needed to govern) and Pascal believed that without it, Cleopatra could not have ruled. On ancient coins, Cleopatra has the so-called high profile: Large nose, sloping forehead, pointed chin and thin lips, and hollow-looking eye sockets. Pascal reasoned that if Cleopatra had not been Pharaoh, Julius Caesar and the warlord Mark Antony would not have fallen in love with her and would not have fallen out of favor and eventually lost their lives.

Background: Caesar’s aspirations for power, military achievements, and relationship with Cleopatra raised concerns in the Senate. Cleopatra, on the other hand, needed Rome’s alliance to keep her country independent. Senators may have feared that Caesar was seeking to expand his power and establish for himself a dynasty that would stretch from Rome to Egypt. In addition, Caesar’s relationship with Cleopatra and a common child (Caesarion) with Cleopatra led to speculation and rumors that Caesar might appoint his children as heirs to Rome, threatening Rome’s traditional republican model of government. After Caesar’s assassination, his adopted son Octavian (Augustus) declared war on Cleopatra’s new mistress and ally Antony, after learning that he had regained Cleopatra’s popularity in Rome and that he was gifting the Queen of Egypt large tracts of land from the Roman Empire.

Pascal’s statement is a typical post-hoc, ergo propter hoc (“After, therefore because of”) interpretation with a lot of presuppositions. It is also a rather long chain of reasoning and a simplified causal explanation where one thing leads to another. Current historical research, on the other hand, starts from the assumption that historical events and phenomena have rather arisen (and always arise) from the combined effect of many factors.

However, it is good to remember the context of the work and the fact that Pascal’s sentence is not intended as a comprehensive explanation of history or literal truth. Rather, it is a rhetorical way of highlighting how small details can have big impacts. Pascal’s “Pensées” was published posthumously in 1669. The work was created at a time when French society and culture were undergoing major change and is linked to a broader debate on religion, philosophy and fundamental questions of human existence. With his work, Pascal sought to respond to the challenges of his time, especially the relationship between faith and reason.

Jeanne d’Arc (1412-1431) became famous for her religious visions, in which she was urged to save France from the invasion of the English. In 1429, she led French soldiers at the Battle of Orléans and took part in the coronation of King Charles VII in Reims. Later, the English convicted her of witchcraft and burned her at the stake. Jeanne’s reputation was purged in 1455, and in 1920 she was canonized.

The task of a historian is not to judge events or phenomena in history, but to make them understandable to modern people. Historical knowledge is based on interpretations and conclusions based on facts and historical sources. According to the so-called classical definition of knowledge, knowledge is “a well-founded true belief.” Thus, according to this definition, there are two criteria for information: that it is true and, secondly, that it is well-founded. This can be stated, for example, if a piece of information, claim, interpretation or conclusion is based on original sources and comparison and analysis of independent sources, and that it has been peer-reviewed in a scientific journal in the field. However, there are also erroneous interpretations and conclusions in historiography, such as:

1. Simplification (Reductio ad Simplisticum)
• Example: “The greatness of the Roman Empire was due to constant wars of conquest.”
• Explanation: This generalizes and simplifies the complex culture and history of the Romans to just one feature. What is overlooked include the flourishing of trade, the importance of the slave economy, the importance of the Mediterranean as a single market and the road network for warfare and trade.
2. Anachronism
• Example: “If Julius Caesar had lived in modern times, he would have been a democrat.”
• Explanation: This assumption applies contemporary political views to a historical figure without context. There is no way of knowing whether this is true, nor can it be substantiated.
3. Post hoc, ergo propter hoc (After this, therefore because of it)
• Example: “The rise of Nazi Germany was caused by the failure of the Weimar Republic.”
• Explanation: Just because both happened at the same time (or, rather, were successive phenomena) doesn’t mean one caused the other.
4. Argumentum ad populum (Population appeal)
• Example: “Many people believe that King Henry VIII was a monster, so that must be true.”
• Explanation: This mistakenly assumes that a widely accepted opinion is true.
5. “No true Scotsman”
• Example: “The leaders of the French Revolution were not true supporters of the revolution because they committed violence”
• Explanation: This fallacy assumes that real representatives of a group will never act contrary to its principles.

The Bill of Rights comprises the First Ten Amendments to the United States Constitution, which are intended to safeguard the fundamental rights of citizens. They were drawn up on the initiative of the later US President James Madison. They were passed by Congress on September 25, 1789, and went into effect on December 15, 1791, when 3/4 of the states ratified them.

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (Octavianus, 23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14 AD) was Roman Emperor from 27 BC up to 14 AD. Augustus was the first emperor of the Julius-Claudius family. Julius Caesar adopted her in 44 BC. and appointed his successor. Outwardly, Augustus maintained the forms and customs of the Roman Republic, but in practice ruled as a sole ruler for more than 40 years.

Several events and factors contributed to the outbreak of the Cold War and increased tensions between the great powers. These included:

The division of Europe after the Second World War: After the war, Europe was divided in two between the capitalist western countries and the communist eastern bloc. This division created the basis for the emphasis of ideological differences.

Expansion of the Soviet Union into Eastern Europe: The Soviet Union took over the countries of Eastern Europe and established communist governments in them, the so-called “people’s democracies”, which increased tensions between the West and the East.

The Berlin Blockade of 1948-49 began when the Soviet Union blockaded Berlin to force the Western powers to leave the city. The cause of the crisis was a dispute over the city’s management and the currency reform implemented by Western countries.

The US Marshall Aid 1948-51 was a European reconstruction program, which the Soviet Union interpreted as interference in the internal affairs of Europe (and especially the Eastern European countries under the influence of the Soviet Union).

NATO and the Warsaw Pact: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact were established to counter each other’s threat. These military alliances increased competition and tension in Europe.

Nuclear Arms Race: The fear of nuclear war and the race to develop nuclear weapons increased tensions worldwide, and Europe was at the centre of this race.

Ideological Conflicts: The ideological struggle between capitalism and communism, which encompassed economics, politics, and culture, had a major impact on the start and duration of the Cold War.

Together, these factors formed a complex political and ideological confrontation that contributed to the outbreak of the Cold War in Europe and worldwide.

Literature – Reference Sources:

John Lewis Gaddis: “The Cold War: A New History”. New York: Penguin Books, 2005.

David Reynolds: “The Cold War: A Very Short Introduction”. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Odd Arne Westad: “The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Melvyn P. Leffler, Odd Arne Westad (toim.): “The Cambridge History of the Cold War” (3 osaa). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

John Lewis Gaddis, et al. (toim.): “The Cold War: A History in Documents and Eyewitness Accounts”. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

The reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) had a significant impact on English history in many ways:

1. Cultural flourishing: Elizabeth’s reign is often known as the English Renaissance, when culture and art flourished. This period is also known as the “Elizabethan Age” or “Golden Age”. Writers and playwrights such as William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Francis Bacon produced remarkable works that are still part of the classics of world literature today.
2. Consolidation of the Protestant Anglican Church: Under Elizabeth, the position of the Anglican Church in England was strengthened, which was an important step towards religious stability and independence from the Roman Catholic Church. This was the result of the Reformation initiated by her father, Henry VIII.
3. Meritocratic government: Elizabeth’s reign saw the rise of many capable ministers, including Sir Francis Walsingham and William Cecil. Thanks to them, England’s economic and political dominance was strengthened in foreign and domestic policy.
4. Expansion of the Overseas Empire: Under Elizabeth, England began its expansion as a colonial conqueror, marking the beginning of a global empire. At this time, colonies were established in North America and Asia, which eventually led to England’s expansion into a global empire in later eras.
5. Counterforce against the Spanish threat: Under Elizabeth, England was in constant conflict with Spain, the most powerful naval power in the world at the time. This was especially evident in the encounter with the Spanish armada in 1588, in which England defeated the Spanish fleet, thus strengthening England’s position as a world power.

The reign of Elizabeth I left an indelible mark on English history and had a significant impact on the country’s cultural, political and economic development.

Nicholas II was the last ruler of the House of Romanovs, who was deposed in the February Revolution of 1917. In Finland, he is known as a signatory of the February Manifesto and initiator of Russification measures. Under his leadership, Russia suffered humiliating defeats in the Russo-Japanese War and World War I, among others.

During their visit to the island of the god Aeolus, keeper of the winds, Odysseus and his men received from him a bag of winds, where all bad winds were captured. When the crew, curious and despite the prohibition, opened the sack, a strong wind arose, which quickly drove them back to the island of Aeolus. The giants living on the island sank all but Odysseus’ own ship, which escaped.